Immune responses and potential effects induced by particulate matter with a diameter ≤2.5 μm (PM2.5) on viral infections
| Experimental platform | PM2.5 exposure time# | Pathogen | Immune response | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Immune responses/effects enhanced by PM2.5 on virus infection | ||||
| BALB/c mice | Short-term | Coxsackievirus B3 | PM2.5 enhances Treg cell and IL-6, TNF-α and TGF-β | [99] |
| Murine model | Short-term | Influenza A virus | PM2.5 increases secreted IL-6, IL-1β and IFN-β in the lungs | [100] |
| C57BL/6 | long-term | SARS-CoV-2 | PM2.5 increases TNF-α, TGF-β1 and IL-6 in the lungs | [118] |
| BABL/c mice | Long-term (>1 week) | Influenza A virus | PM2.5 drives influenza A virus deep into the lower respiratory tract and distant organs | [119] |
| Immune responses reduced by PM2.5 on virus infection | ||||
| Macrophage isolated from C57BL/6 mice | Short-term | Influenza A virus | PM2.5 decreases IL-1β and IFN-β production | [72] |
| A549 cells | Short-term | Vesicular stomatitis virus | PM2.5 degrades p-IRF3 via ubiquitination, resulting in decreased IFN-β levels and promoting viral replication | [111] |
| C57BL/6 mice | Long-term (3 days) | Influenza A virus | PM2.5 decreases IL-1β and IFN-β production | [72] |
| Murine model | Long-term (2 weeks) | Influenza A virus | PM2.5 suppresses influenza A-induced secreted IL-6, IL-1β and IFN-β in the lungs | [100] |
#: Short-term exposure: exposure to PM2.5 within 24 h; long-term exposure: exposure to PM2.5 for more than 24 h. IFN-β: interferon-β; IL: interleukin; p-IRF3: phosphorylated interferon regulatory factor 3; SARS-CoV-2: severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2; TGF: transforming growth factor; TNF-α: tumour necrosis factor-α; Treg: regulatory T-cell.