TABLE 1

Summary of the known roles of microparticles (MPs) in human lung diseases

Disease and MP type	Medium	Significance or hypothesised role	References
COPD
EMPs	Plasma	Markers of emphysema: increased apoptotic (CD31⁺) MPs in early emphysema and mild COPD	[42, 43]
		Prognostic markers for exacerbation susceptibility: increased apoptotic (CD31⁺) and activated (CD62E⁺) MPs during exacerbations; increased activated MPs in stable COPD at higher risk for future exacerbations	[44]
		Prognostic markers for functional decline over time: correlation of number of activated (CD62E⁺) MPs and FEV₁ decline	[45]
Asthma
PMPs	Plasma	Role in organising bronchial inflammation	[46]
TF-bearing MPs	BALF	Promoting hypercoagulability during asthma exacerbations	[47]
Diffuse parenchymal lung disease
PMPs and MMPs	Plasma	Markers of lung involvement in systemic sclerosis	[48]
TF-bearing MPs	BALF	Markers of disease severity; promoting myofibroblast differentiation and activity	[49]
ARDS/ALI
Total MPs	BALF	Local activation of the coagulation cascade; possible target for treatment	[50]
LMPs	Plasma	Prognostic markers: increased in survivors	[51]
Pulmonary embolism and VTE
EMPs	Plasma	Promoting clot formation? (inconclusive data)	[15, 52]
TF-bearing MPs	Plasma	Promoting clotting in cancer patients	[53–56]
	Plasma	Possible markers for therapeutic decisions (i.e. thromboprophylaxis)	[57]
Lung cancer
PMPs and MMPs	Plasma	Promoting hypercoagulability and tumour angiogenesis	[58]
Total MPs, PMPs and EMPs	Plasma	Prognostic markers? (inconclusive data); increased “activated” EMPs (CD31⁺CD42b⁻annexinV⁻) in survivors	[59–61]
Pulmonary hypertension
TF-bearing MPs	Plasma	Prothrombotic role in advanced PAH	[62]
EMPs	Plasma	Markers of endothelial damage	[62]
		Markers of different pathogenic patterns	[63]
		Prognostic markers	[64]

COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; EMPs: endothelial cell-derived microparticles; FEV₁: forced expiratory volume in 1 s; PMPs: platelet-derived microparticles; TF: tissue factor; BALF: bronchoalveolar lavage fluid; MMPs: monocyte-derived microparticles; ARDS: acute respiratory distress syndrome; ALI: acute lung injury; LMPs: leukocyte-derived microparticles; VTE: venous thromboembolism; PAH: pulmonary arterial hypertension.