Figures
- Figure 1.
Inter-ethnic differences in mortality and/or incidence for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer per 100 000, the basis of the “Hispanic paradox” [37, 38].
- Figure 2.
Age-adjusted incidence rates (per 100 000) for several cancers for 1999–2003 according to sex and ethnicity in the USA for a) males and b) females [39].
- Figure 3.
Lung cancer incidence per 100 000 [38], adjusted lung cancer risk [41], chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) mortality per 100 000 [37], COPD prevalence in adults [34] and percentage consuming bean [43] in the USA according to ethnicity. #: odds ratio×100; ¶: %×10.
- Figure 4.
Schematic of the relationship between smoking and legume consumption (smoking–diet relationship) in relation to pulmonary inflammation, systemic inflammation, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cancer (both lung and extrapulmonary). MΦ: macrophage; PMN: polymorphonuclear neutrophil; IL: interleukin; TNF: tumour necrosis factor; CRP: C-reactive protein.
Tables
- Table 1. Basis of the Hispanic paradox based on incidence, prevalence and mortality figures for chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and lung cancer in USA and South American populations comparing Mexican/Hispanic with other ethnicities
Disease Clinical phenotype Comparison Outcome % Risk reduction % First author [ref.] COPD COPD prevalence (%) over 2007–2009 among adults aged ≥18 years Mexican versus non-Hispanic white 2.6 versus 5.7 54 Akinbami [34] Mexican versus Puerto Rican 2.6 versus 6.9 62 COPD prevalence unadjusted (GOLD)
Prevalence of rapid FEV1 declineMexican versus non-Hispanic white 14.9 versus 29.5 50 Bruse [35] Mexican versus non-Hispanic white 21.6 versus 31.6 32 COPD prevalence in two Latin American cities (adjusted for smoking and ethnicity) Mexico City versus Montevideo 12.7 versus 20.3 37 Menzes [36] COPD mortality rates (2006) (age-adjusted per 100 000 per year) Hispanic versus Caucasian (males) 21.2 versus 50.5 58 American Lung Association [37] Hispanic versus American Indian (males) 21.2 versus 32.2 34 Hispanic versus Caucasian (females) 13.1 versus 39.1 66 Hispanic versus American Indian (females) 13.1 versus 28.6 54 Lung
cancerLung cancer incidence rates 2002–2006 (age-adjusted per 100 000 per year) Hispanic versus Caucasian (males) 43.2 versus 77.6 44 American Lung Association [38] Hispanic versus American Indian (males) 43.2 versus 51.6 16 Hispanic versus Caucasian (females) 24.7 versus 54.8 55 Hispanic versus American Indian (females) 24.7 versus 39.8 38 Lung cancer incidence rates 1999–2003 (age-adjusted per 100 000 per year) Hispanic versus Caucasian (males) 52.7 versus 88.8 41 Howe [39] Hispanic versus Caucasian (females) 26.7 versus 56.2 52 Lung cancer mortality rates 2002–2006 (age-adjusted per 100 000 per year) Hispanic versus Caucasian (males) 33.9 versus 69.9 52 American Lung Association [38] Hispanic versus American Indian (males) 33.9 versus 41.2 18 Hispanic versus Caucasian (females) 14.4 versus 40.9 65 Hispanic versus American Indian (females) 14.4 versus 28.3 49 Lung cancer mortality rates 1999–2003 (age-adjusted per 100 000 per year) Hispanic versus Caucasian (males) 37.2 versus 73.8 50 Howe [39] Hispanic versus Caucasian (females) 14.7 versus 42.0 65 GOLD: Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease; FEV1: forced expiratory volume in 1 s.
Disclosures
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