Perfusion scintigraphy | Perfusion deficits likely in pressure gradients left atrium/pulmonary vein >5 mmHg and/or >80% stenosis | Low specificity, perfusion deficits in cases with pulmonary embolism |
Transoesophageal echocardiography | Information about left and right heart function | Inferior pulmonary vein difficult to visualise |
| Consider relevant stenosis if: | Anomalies like accessory pulmonary veins, common left trunk or hypoplasia are often missed |
| pulmonary vein flow velocity >100 cm·s−1 | |
| pulmonary vein diameter <5 mm | |
| | Underestimates pulmonary vein diameter |
3D-MRA venography | Simultaneous visualisation of: | Limited post-processing |
| mediastinal structures | |
| left and right heart function | |
| partial anomalous venous return | |
| Flow quantification with phase contrast | Limited visualisation of the pulmonary parenchyma |
3D-CT venography | Data acquisition within a few seconds | Iodine contrast media and radiation exposure |
| Simultaneous visualisation of: | |
| pulmonary parenchyma | |
| mediastinal structures | |
| left and right heart | |
| Post-processing possible in all planes | |
Direct venography | Can be used in combination with therapeutic interventions | Most invasive |
| Retrograde pulmonary vein detection in near-total occlusion | Lowest sensitivity for the detection of pulmonary veins in comparison with the other techniques |
| Assessment pressure gradient from pulmonary vein pressure to left atrium pressure | Overestimates diameter of pulmonary veins |
| | Restricted to luminography |