Valproate | Epilepsy | HDAC [39] | Phase II ongoing in different types of cancer | Phase II [40] |
Statins | Dyslipidaemia [38] | Induction of cell cycle arrest [41] Induction of apoptosis [42] Sensitises cells to chemotherapy [43] Inhibition of angiogenesis [44] Inhibition of invasion and metastasis [45] Induction of tumour differentiation [46] Reversion of multidrug resistance [47] | Phase III: gastric cancer [48], colorectal cancer [49] Phase III: ongoing in SCLC [50] | Preclinical [47, 51–53] |
Itraconazole | Antifungal | Induction of angiogenesis [54] Inhibition of hedgehog pathway [8] | Phase II: NSCLC [55] Prostate cancer [56] Basal cell carcinoma [57] | Preclinical [58] |
Arsenic trioxide | Traditional Chinese medicine | Induction of apoptosis [59] | FDA approved: promyelocytic leukaemia [60] Phase III: hepatocellular carcinoma | Preclinical [58, 61, 62] |
Disulfiram | Addiction to alcohol [63] | DNA N-methyl transferase inhibition | Phase II: NSCLC [64] | Preclinical [65] |
Celecoxib | NSAIDs [66] | Inhibition of cell cycle progression [67] Inhibition of apoptosis [68] Inhibition of angiogenesis [69] | Phase II: breast cancer [70], glioblastoma [71], ovarian cancer [72] Phase III: ongoing in different types of cancer | Preclinical [73] |
Metformin | Diabetes type 2 | Inhibition of mTor [74] Inhibition of cell cycle [75] Inhibition of EMT [76] | Phase II: pancreatic cancer [77] Phase III ongoing: breast cancer [78], endometrial cancer [79] | Preclinical [80] |
Tocotrienol | Antioxidant [81, 82] | Inhibition of angiogenesis [83] Inhibition of PI3K/AKT pathway [84] Reversion of chemoresistance [85] | Phase II: breast cancer [86] Phase II ongoing: ovarian cancer [87] | Preclinical [52, 85, 88] |
Thalidomide | Sickness in pregnant females (withdrawn) [29] | Inhibition of angiogenesis [31] Inhibition of cell proliferation [32] Immunomodulatory function [33] | FDA approved: multiple myeloma [34] | Phase III [37] |
Anisomycin | Antibiotic | Induction of apoptosis [89] | Preclinical [90] | Preclinical [90] |
Zoledronic acid | Osteoporosis, hypercalcaemia [91] | Inhibition of cell proliferation Inhibition of invasion Inhibition of angiogenesis Inhibition of bone metastases Immunomodulatory function [92, 93] Reversion of chemoresistance [94] | Phase III: breast cancer [95] | Phase II [96] |