1. Treat underlying cause when possible, e.g. coronary artery disease and arterial hypertension |
2. General measurements, self-care management (avoid drugs that adversely affect the clinical status whenever possible) |
3. Diuretics (and moderate salt restriction) |
4. β-blockers (initiated in very low doses, followed by gradual increment) |
5. Angiotension-converting enzyme inhibitors (or angiotensin II receptor blockers, if intolerant for angiotension-converting enzyme inhibitors) |
6. Aldosterone antagonists (only when renal function is preserved and closely monitored) |
7. Exercise training (adjunct to optimal medical therapy) |
8. Implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (patients at high-risk for life-threatening arrhythmic disorders) |
9. Cardiac resynchronisation therapy (symptomatic heart failure patients despite optimal medical treatment, with signs of cardiac dyssynchrony): digoxin, hydrazaline/nitrate, left ventricle assist devices, heart transplantation |